המאמר הינו חלק ממאמר אשר פורסם בשנת 2016 ב - 

Research on Social Work Practice

Retirement Preparation Programs: An Examination of Retirement Perceptions, Self-mastery, and Wellbeing

>Jiska Cohen-Mansfield,

Irit Regev.

ABSTRACT

Purpose. This study was designed to examine whether pre-retirement intervention, through preparation programs conducted by social workers, enhance retirees’ healthy retirement transition and self-mastery and well-being outcomes.

Methods. Data were gathered at pre-program, post-program, and at 6-month follow-up. A total of 84 participants filled out pre- and post-program questionnaires, of which 66 also completed follow-up assessment. Participants were 1-3 months before retirement at pre-assessment and 4-8 months after retirement at follow-up.

Results. The pre-retirement program improved participants’ appraisal of retirement, and created lower and more realistic expectations of post-retirement work prospects.  While these variables changed in the expected direction between pre- and post-program assessment, participants' scores at follow-up indicated less self-mastery, greater depressed affect, and less positive feelings regarding retirement.

Discussion. The short-term value of retirement programs was supported, and revealed the importance of although follow-up programs to maintain short-term gains and to address additional long-term developments.

Keywords: Follow-up outcome; Post-program outcome; Retirement; Retirement preparation program

The transition from a life of work to retirement poses both practical and emotional challenges in the social, familial, and personal context (e.g., coping with lower income; having numerous leisure hours; role-loss; having to leave a familiar, well-known world) (Schlossberg, 2004; Wang & Shi, 2013; Wang & Shultz, 2010; Wink & James, 2013). Previous studies investigated the relation between these challenges and various outcome variables, such as physical and emotional wellbeing, psychological distress, feelings of personal control, and life satisfaction (Calasanti, 1996; Isaksson & Johansson, 2000; J. E. Kim & Moen, 2002; Ross & Drentea, 1998; Warr, Butcher, Robertson, & Callinan, 2004; Wu, Tang, & Yan, 2005). These studies yielded inconsistent results, suggesting the existence of heterogeneity in the response to the retirement adjustment process both between individuals and within individuals over time (Wang, Henkens, & van Solinge, 2011).

Theoretical Frameworks Underlying Retirement Adjustment

Wang and Shultz (2010) discussed three theoretical frameworks that attempt to account for this variability: life course perspective theory, continuity theory, and role theory. The life course perspective theory (Elder, 1998; Elder & Johnson, 2003) links individual attributes (e.g., demographics, health, coping skills, and abilities) social factors such as age-based norms, roles, and individual history to individual adjustment. (Morrow-Howell & Leon, 1988; Orel, Ford, & Brock, 2004; Settersten, 1998; Wink & James, 2013) Continuity theory (Atchley, 1999) states that persons have the urge to maintain stability throughout life (e.g., concerning social relationships, financial status, functioning, skills), and that, therefore, the outcome of a retirement transition depends on whether or not one is able to maintain consistency with previous life patterns (Beehr & Bowling, 2013; Bonsdorff & Ilmarinen, 2013;  Kim & Feldman, 2000). Role theory (Ashforth, 2000) centers on the importance of role-related aspects (i.e., role exit and role transition) and the degree to which an individual identifies with various roles for retirement outcomes. Persons who invested predominantly in their work role, or highly value their work role, are at risk when facing role transition with retirement (Adams, Prescher, Beehr, & Lepisto, 2002). The common denominator of all three theories is the assumption that the transition to retirement involves active participation of the retiree. This assumption provides justification for the retirement preparation course intervention investigated in this research.

Planning and Preparation for Retirement

Retirement planning is defined as goal-focused behavior in various areas: finances, health, family, society, and leisure, with the main overall objective being optimizing personal wellbeing in the post-retirement years. Retirement is increasingly viewed as an ongoing process, and planning prior to retirement is assumed to lead to more positive outcomes for both the individual and society (e.g., Taylor & Dovespike, 2003), with the actual end of work and beginning of retirement and the ensuing adjustment following (Wang, 2013).

Research has shown that the planning process affects adjustment and life satisfaction after retirement (Kornadt & Rothermund, 2014; Potocnick, Tordera, & Peiro, 2010; Taylor & Doverspike, 2003; Taylor & Schaffer, 2013). Nevertheless, studies on the effect of planning report conflicting results regarding the influence of planning on wellbeing after retirement. A few studies found that planning and preparation contribute positively to the adjustment to retirement and subsequent life satisfaction, reporting that planning helps individuals establish realistic expectations and an alternative lifestyle (Topa, Moriano, Depolo, Alcover, & Morales, 2009; Wang & Shultz, 2010). Alternately, others have found that planning and preparation are not significantly related to adjustment in the transition to retirement and not predictive of retirement satisfaction or wellbeing (Donaldson, Earl, & Muratore, 2010; Topa et al., 2009). Taylor and Schaffer (2013) provide a conceptual framework–referred to as the Person-Environment (PE) Fit model–that distinguishes characteristics found to support and facilitate retirement preparation (e.g., health-oriented, personality characteristics such as self- mastery [see Donaldson, Earl, & Muratore (2010)], social resources) and characteristics that hindered or blocked the effect of preparation for retirement (e.g., high change in post-retirement environments, neuroticism). Noone, Stephens, and Alpass (2009) emphasized the importance of planning – financial and psychological – for fostering personal wellbeing following retirement. While financial planning is straightforward, psychological planning requires more thought. Beyond relating to planning new activities for time that will become available, psychological planning considers the significance of having social support, and especially the change that individuals must undergo in their perceptions and beliefs regarding their personal identity as non-workers. Thus, adjustment depends on individual resources – health, cognitive assessments, and beliefs, personality characteristics, social support, and areas of interest one et al., 2009; Taylor & Schaffer, 2013).

To date, most of the research concerning retirement preparation has focused on the financial aspects of preparation. Social and familial relations and leisure planning have received less attention, despite recognition of the importance of planning in these areas (Schellenberg, Turcotte, & Ram, 2005; Rau & Adams, 2013; Taylor & Doverspike, 2003).

In an effort to provide a broader picture of retirement planning and its impact, our study focused on several of the above aspects of functioning that have characteristically been overlooked. One of these is the individual’s expectations from the new period in his life that is about to begin. Retirement planning can help the retiree develop realistic expectations and encourage him to set social, health, economic, and leisure goals which will contribute to his adjustment to life after retirement from work (Kim & Moen 2002). Expectations play a major role in shaping retirement transition as well as satisfaction after retirement. For example, workers who expected retirement to lead to a positive life period moved up the time of their retirement and were more satisfied with their life after retirement (Kim & Moen, 2002; Taylor, Goldberg, Shore, & Lipka, 2008).

The Law of Retirement in Israel was passed in 2004, making retirement mandatory. However, the retirement age is being gradually raised from 65 to 67 for men and from 60 to 62 for women, with retirement age for women reaching 64 years by 2017. For men and women alike, an employer may require that the employee retire at 67. (Israel National Insurance Institute, 2015; Workers’ rights, 2015). The attitudes towards retirement are influenced by the attitudes toward work. Although Israel has undergone dynamic social, political, and economic changes since the 1980s, moving toward becoming a more individualistic society, the centrality and meaning of work remains unique (Samuel & Harpaz, 2004), an ideological vestige that may still affect attitudes toward retirement.

Social workers accompany individuals and groups throughout their employment career, and acknowledge that this is one of a person’s most significant stages of life. Therefore, when people approach retirement age, social workers are prepared to help with retirement preparation programs – professional tools and interventions for counselling older adults in this life transition. Social workers in settings that serve older adults or older employees must understand the special challenges faced by these individuals as they face the life transition from employment to retirement (Dorfman, 2011).

Retirement planning can be advanced by means of intervention programs, which often take the form of seminars and courses. Retirement preparation programs typically provide assistance in two domains. First, practical issues are addressed by providing information on topics such as financial resources and budgeting during retirement, legal issues such as wills and inheritance, national insurance institute rights, pension rights and issues related to taxation, volunteer organizations, leisure activities including studies, and living arrangements. Second, psychosocial topics are discussed. Such topics can be summarized as helping persons overcome their anxiety regarding retirement and developing a positive attitude towards it and can help the retiree to no longer view work as one`s main role in life and to substitute various activities as a source of feelings of self-worth and satisfaction (Sterns & Kaplan, 2003; Sterns & Subich, 2005; Taylor & Schaffer, 2013; Wang & Shultz, 2010).

Despite the claimed benefits of retirement preparation programs, there is a dearth of evaluation of such programs. A literature search revealed only a few relevant studies evaluating group or individual interventions aimed at promoting retirees` coping strategies in order to enhance happiness and buffer against depression (Chan, Gustafsson & Liddle, 2015; Goold, 2007; Liddle, Haynes, Pachan, Mitchell, McKenna, Gustafsson, 2014). For example, Goold (2007) presented a study that included 370 retirees, 65 to 85 years of age, living in the Gold Coast (Australia). The results showed that, compared to a control group, participants` depressive mood significantly decreased and their happiness significantly increased, both at a post-intervention test and at a six-week follow-up. Further, the participants` daily use of coping strategies increased over time (from pre- to post- and from post- to six-weeks follow-up assessment). Happier participants did not report greater use of coping strategies compared to less happy participants, indicating a more complex impact of the program. Participants indicated that they enjoyed the program and learned from it. A second study (Chan et al., 2015) evaluated a complex intervention using a prospective experimental design with a single group of 20 taxi-drivers in Singapore. The results presented significant improvement in mood, self-efficacy, and individual goal satisfaction. In contrast, Noone et al. (2009) found that attending a retirement seminar was not a predictor of wellbeing in retirement.

For this study, retirement was defined as "withdrawal from paid working life" (e.g., Denton & Spencer, 2009, p. 64). Our assumption was that planning retirement through special preparation programs would be a significant predictor of a sense of personal wellbeing and life satisfaction. This study evaluates the impact of these programs on three types of outcome: protective features for a healthy retirement transition (retirement expectations of both the retiree and family, feelings concerning retirement, and cognitive appraisal of retirement); self-mastery; and wellbeing outcomes (life satisfaction, depression, and quality of life).